A BOOK OF OUR HERITAGE- Deep Rooted With Cultures From Past To Present
The Custom of Crying Marriage
The custom of crying marriage existed a
long time ago in many areas of Southwest China's Sichuan Province, and
remained in vogue until the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). Though
not so popular as before, the custom is still observed by people in
many places, especially Tujia people, who view it as a necessary
marriage procedure.
Crying Marriage in General
It is very much the same in different places of the province. According
to elderly people, every bride had to cry at the wedding . Otherwise,
the bride's neighbors would look down upon her as a poorly cultivated
girl and she would become the laughingstock of the village. In fact,
there were cases in which the bride was beaten by her mother for not
crying at the wedding ceremony.
During the Warring States Period (475-221BC), as historical records
reveal, the princess of the Zhao State was married to the Yan State to
be a queen. Her mother, on the point of her daughter's departure, cried
at her feet and asked her to return home as soon as possible. Later,
the story was alluded to as the origin of the "crying marriage" custom.
In west Sichuan Province, the custom is called "Zuo Tang (Sitting in
the Hall)". Usually, the bride begins to cry a month before the wedding
day. As the night falls, the bride walks inside the hall and weeps for
about an hour. Ten days later, her mother joins her, crying together
with her.; Another ten days later, the grandmother joins the daughter
and mother, to cry together with them. The sisters and aunts of the
bride, if she has any, also have to join the crying.
The bride may cry in different ways with diversified words, which was
also called "Crying Marriage Song"; the somewhat exaggerated singing
helps to enhance the wedding atmosphere. In a word, crying at wedding
is a way by custom to set off the happiness of the wedding via falsely
sorrowful words. However, in the arranged marriages of the old days of
China, there were indeed quite a lot of brides who cried over their
unsatisfactory marriage and even their miserable life.
In fact, swearing at the matchmaker used to be an important part of
crying marriage, as well as the most rebellious part. In the old
society, women were bound by the so-called "three obediences and four
virtues", thus having no say in their marriage, which was all arranged
by the matchmaker and the parents. Therefore, the brides often swore at
the matchmaker before stepping inside the sedan, which was also seen as
a pent-up of their dissatisfaction with and hatred of the old
matrimonial system. This is also reflected in local operas and other
folk art forms.
Once, there was a scene called "Yingtai Swearing at the Matchmaker" in
a Sichuan Opera on the butterfly lovers. In the opera, Zhu Yingtai
severely scolded the matchmaker with sharp crying words, which fully
show her strong character and her hatred of the feudal system. The
scene has been removed, as the custom of swearing at the matchmaker no
longer exists in many places, especially in cities.
In the countryside, where the matchmakers still play an important part
in marriage, brides continue to swear at them in crying marriage.
However, it is said that the matchmakers never fear being scolded, but
not being scolded, which means they will never get rid of the bad luck
(the Chinese character for matchmaker is a homonym of that for bad
luck).
Obon(お盆?) or just Bon(盆?) is a Japanese Buddhist
custom to honor the spirits of one's ancestors. This Buddhist-Confucian
custom has evolved into a family reunion holiday during which people
return to ancestral family places and visit and clean their ancestors'
graves, and when the spirits of ancestors are supposed to revisit the
household altars. It has been celebrated in Japan for more than 500
years and traditionally includes a dance, known as Bon-Odori.
The festival of Obon lasts for three days; however its starting date varies within different regions of Japan. When the lunar calendar was changed to the Gregorian calendar at the beginning of the Meiji era,
the localities in Japan reacted differently and this resulted in three
different times of Obon. "Shichigatsu Bon" (Bon in July) is based on
the solar calendar and is celebrated around 15 July in eastern Japan (Kantō region such as Tokyo, Yokohama and the Tohoku region), coinciding with Chūgen.
"Hachigatsu Bon" (Bon in August) is based on the lunar calendar, is
celebrated around the 15th of August and is the most commonly
celebrated time. "Kyu Bon" (Old Bon) is celebrated on the 15th day of
the seventh month of the lunar calendar, and so differs each year. "Kyu
Bon" is celebrated in areas like the northern part of the Kantō region,
Chūgoku region, Shikoku, and the Ryukyu Islands. These three days are not listed as public holidays but it is customary that people are given leave.
Origin
Obon is a shortened form of Ullambana (Japanese: 于蘭盆會 or 盂蘭盆會, urabon'e). It is Sanskrit for "hanging upside down" and implies great suffering. The Japanese believe they should ameliorate the suffering of the "Urabanna".
Bon Odori originates from the story of Maha Maudgalyayana (Mokuren), a disciple of the Buddha, who used his supernatural powers to look upon his deceased mother. He discovered she had fallen into the Realm of Hungry Ghosts and was suffering. Greatly disturbed, he went to the Buddha
and asked how he could release his mother from this realm. Buddha
instructed him to make offerings to the many Buddhist monks who had
just completed their summer retreat, on the fifteenth day of the
seventh month. The disciple did this and, thus, saw his mother's
release. He also began to see the true nature of her past unselfishness
and the many sacrifices that she had made for him. The disciple, happy
because of his mother's release and grateful for his mother's kindness,
danced with joy. From this dance of joy comes Bon Odori or "Bon Dance", a time in which ancestors and their sacrifices are remembered and appreciated. See also: Ullambana Sutra.
As Obon occurs in the heat of the summer, participants traditionally wear yukata, or light cotton kimonos. Many Obon celebrations include a huge carnival with rides, games, and summer festival food like watermelon.
The festival ends with Toro Nagashi,
or the floating of lanterns. Paper lanterns are illuminated and then
floated down rivers symbolically signaling the ancestral spirits'
return to the world of the dead. This ceremony usually culminates in a
fireworks display.
Bon Odori
Bon Odori(盆踊り?), meaning simply Bon dance is a style of dancing performed during Obon. Originally a Nenbutsu folk dance to welcome the spirits
of the dead, the style of celebration varies in many aspects from
region to region. Each region has a local dance, as well as different
music. The music can be songs specifically pertinent to the spiritual
message of Obon, or local min'yo folk songs. Consequently, the Bon dance will look and sound different from region to region. Hokkaidō is known for a folk-song known as "Soran Bushi." The song "Tokyo Ondo" takes its namesake from the capital of Japan. "Gujo Odori" in Gujō, Gifu prefecture is famous for all night dancing. "Gōshū Ondo" is a folk song from Shiga prefecture. Residents of the Kansai area will recognize the famous "Kawachi ondo." Tokushima in Shikoku is very famous for its "Awa Odori," or "fool's dance," and in the far south, one can hear the "Ohara Bushi" of Kagoshima.
The way in which the dance is performed is also different in each
region, though the typical Bon dance involves people lining up in a
circle around a high wooden scaffold made especially for the festival
called a yagura.
The yagura is usually also the bandstand for the musicians and singers
of the Obon music. Some dances proceed clockwise, and some dances
proceed counter-clockwise around the yagura. Some dances reverse during
the dance, though most do not. At times, people face the yagura and
move towards and away from it. Still some dances, such as the Kagoshima
Ohara dance, and the Tokushima Awa Odori, simply proceed in a straight
line through the streets of the town.
The dance of a region can depict the area's history and specialization. For example, the movements of the dance of the Tankō Bushi (the "coal mining song") of old Miike Mine
in Kyushu show the movements of miners, i.e. digging, cart pushing,
lantern hanging, etc. All dancers perform the same dance sequence in
unison.
There are other ways in which a regional Bon dance can vary. Some
dances involve the use of different kinds of fans, others involve the
use of small towels called tenugui which may have colorful
designs. Some require the use of small wooden clappers, or
"kachi-kachi" during the dance. The "Hanagasa Odori" of Yamagata is
performed with a straw hat that has been decorated with flowers.
The music that is played during the Bon dance is not limited to Obon music and min'yo; some modern enka hits and kids' tunes written to the beat of the "ondo" are also used to dance to during Obon season.
The Bon dance tradition is said to have started in the later years of the Muromachi period
as a public entertainment. In the course of time, the original
religious meaning has faded, and the dance has become associated with
summer.
To celebrate O-Bon in Okinawa, the eisa drum dance is performed instead.
Celebrations outside Japan
Argentina
In Argentina,
the Bon Festival is celebrated by Japanese communities during the
summer of the southern hemisphere. The biggest festival is held in
Colonia Urquiza, in La Plata Partido. It takes place on the sports ground of the La Plata Japanese School. The festival also includes taiko shows and typical dances.
Brazil
Bon Odori Festival is celebrated every year in many Japanese communities all over Brazil, as Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside of Japan. São Paulo is the main city of the Japanese community in Brazil, and also features the major festival in Brazil, with street odori dancing and matsuri dance. It also features Taiko and Shamisen contests. And, of course, this festival is also a unique experience of a variety of Japanese food & drinks, art and dance.
Korea
The Korean version of the Bon celebration is known as Baekjung.
Participants present offerings at Buddhist shrines and temples, and
masked dances are performed. It is as much an agricultural festival as
a religious one.
Malaysia
In Malaysia, Bon Odori Festivals are also celebrated every year in Penang, Matsushita Corp Stadium in Shah Alam, Selangor, and also Universiti Malaysia Sabah at Kota Kinabalu, Sabah.
This celebration, which is a major attraction for the state of
Selangor, is the brain child of the Japanese Expatriate &
Immigrant's Society in Malaysia. In comparison to the celebrations in
Japan, the festival is celebrated on a much smaller scale in Penang,
Selangor and Sabah, and is less associated with Buddhism and more with
Japanese culture. Held mainly to expose locals to a part of Japanese
culture, the festival provides the experience of a variety of Japanese
food and drinks, art and dance, with the vast number of Japanese
companies in Malaysia taking part to promote their products.
United States and Canada
The "Bon season" is an important part of the present-day culture and
life of Hawaii. Bon Odori festivals are also celebrated in North
America, particularly by Japanese-Americans or Japanese-Canadians
affiliated with Buddhist temples and organizations. Buddhist Churches of America
(BCA) temples in the U.S. typically celebrate Bon Odori with both
religious Obon observances and traditional Bon Odori dancing around a yagura.
Many temples also concurrently hold a cultural and food bazaar
providing a variety of cuisine and art, also to display features of
Japanese culture and Japanese-American history. Performances of taiko by both amateur and professional groups have recently become a popular feature of Bon Odori festivals.
Bon Odori festivals are usually scheduled anytime between July and
September. Bon Odori melodies are also similar to those in Japan; for
example, the dance Tankō Bushi from Kyushu
is also performed in the U.S. In California, due to the diffusion of
Japanese immigration, Bon Odori dances also differ from Northern to
Southern California, and some are influenced by American culture, such
as "Baseball Ondo".
Martin Luther King Jr. was born on
January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia. King, both a Baptist minister and
civil-rights activist, had a seismic impact on race relations in the United
States, beginning in the mid-1950s. Among many efforts, King headed the SCLC.
Through his activism, he played a pivotal role in ending the legal segregation
of African-American citizens in the South and other areas of the nation,
as well as the creation of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. King received the Nobel
Peace Prize in 1964, among several other honors. King was assassinated in April
1968, and continues to be remembered as one of the most lauded African-American
leaders in history, often referenced by his 1963 speech, "I Have a Dream."
Born as Michael King Jr. on January
15, 1929, Martin Luther King Jr. was the middle child of Michael King Sr. and
Alberta Williams King. The King and Williams families were rooted in rural
Georgia. Martin Jr.'s grandfather, A.D. Williams, was a rural minister for
years and then moved to Atlanta in 1893. He took over the small, struggling
Ebenezer Baptist church with around 13 members and made it into a forceful
congregation. He married Jennie Celeste Parks and they had one child that
survived, Alberta. Michael King Sr. came from a sharecropper family in a poor
farming community. He married Alberta in 1926 after an eight-year courtship.
The newlyweds moved to A.D. Williams home in Atlanta.
Michael King Sr. stepped in as
pastor of Ebenezer Baptist Church upon the death of his father-in-law in 1931.
He too became a successful minister, and adopted the name Martin Luther King
Sr. in honor of the German Protestant religious leader Martin Luther. In due
time, Michael Jr. would follow his father's lead and adopt the name himself.
Young Martin had an older sister,
Willie Christine, and a younger brother, Alfred Daniel Williams King. The King
children grew up in a secure and loving environment. Martin Sr. was more the
disciplinarian, while his wife's gentleness easily balanced out the father's
more strict hand. Though they undoubtedly tried, Martin Jr.’s parents couldn’t
shield him completely from racism. Martin Luther King Sr. fought against racial
prejudice, not just because his race suffered, but because he considered racism
and segregation to be an affront to God's will. He strongly discouraged any
sense of class superiority in his children which left a lasting impression on
Martin Jr.
Growing up in Atlanta, Georgia,
Martin Luther King Jr. entered public school at age 5. In May, 1936 he was
baptized, but the event made little impression on him. In May, 1941, Martin was
12 years old when is grandmother, Jennie, died of a heart attack. The event was
traumatic for Martin, more so because he was out watching a parade against his
parents' wishes when she died. Distraught at the news, young Martin jumped from
a second story window at the family home, allegedly attempting suicide.
King attended Booker T.
Washington High School, where he was said to be a precocious student. He
skipped both the ninth and eleventh grades, and entered Morehouse College in
Atlanta at age 15, in 1944. He was a popular student, especially with his
female classmates, but an unmotivated student who floated though his first two
years. Although his family was deeply involved in the church and worship, young
Martin questioned religion in general and felt uncomfortable with overly
emotional displays of religious worship. This discomfort continued through much
of his adolescence, initially leading
him to decide against entering the ministry, much to his father's dismay. But
in his junior year, Martin took a Bible class, renewed his faith and began to
envision a career in the ministry. In the fall of his senior year, he told his
father of his decision.
In 1948, Martin Luther King Jr. earned a sociology degree from Morehouse
College and attended the liberal Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester,
Pennsylvania. He thrived in all his studies, and was valedictorian of his class
in 1951, and elected student body president. He also earned a fellowship for
graduate study. But Martin also rebelled against his father’s more conservative
influence by drinking beer and playing pool while at college. He became
involved with a white woman and went through a difficult time before he could
break off the affair.
During his last year in seminary, Martin Luther King Jr. came under the
influence of theologian Reinhold Niebbuhr, a classmate of his father's at
Morehouse College. Niebbuhr became a mentor to Martin, challenging his liberal
views of theology. Niebuhr was probably the single most important influence in
Martin's intellectual and spiritual development. After being accepted at
several colleges for his doctoral study including Yale and Edinburgh in
Scotland, King enrolled in Boston University.
During the work on this doctorate, Martin Luther King Jr. met Coretta Scott,
an aspiring singer and musician, at the New England Conservatory school in
Boston. They were married in June 1953 and had four children, Yolanda, Martin
Luther King III, Dexter Scott and Bernice. In 1954, while still working on his
dissertation, King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church of
Montgomery, Alabama. He completed his Ph.D. and was award his degree in 1955.
King was only 25 years old.
On March 2, 1955, a 15-year-old girl refused to give up her seat to a white
man on a Montgomery city bus in violation of local law. Claudette Colvin
was arrested and taken to jail. At first, the local chapter of the NAACP felt
they had an excellent test case to challenge Montgomery's segregated bus
policy. But then it was revealed that she was pregnant and civil rights leaders
feared this would scandalize the deeply religious black community and make
Colvin (and, thus the group's efforts) less credible in the eyes of sympathetic
whites.
On December 1, 1955, they got another chance to make their case. That
evening, 42-year-old Rosa Parks
boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus to go home from an exhausting day at work. She
sat in the first row of the "colored" section in the middle of the
bus. As the bus traveled its route, all the seats it the white section filled
up, then several more white passengers boarded the bus. The bus driver noted
that there were several white men standing and demanded that Parks and several
other African Americans give up their seats. Three other African American
passengers reluctantly gave up their places, but Parks remained seated. The
driver asked her again to give up her seat and again she refused. Parks was
arrested and booked for violating the Montgomery City Code. At her trial a week
later, in a 30-minute hearing, Parks was found guilty and fined $10 and
assessed $4 court fee.
On the night that Rosa Parks was
arrested, E.D. Nixon, head of the local NAACP chapter met with Martin Luther
King Jr. and other local civil rights leaders to plan a citywide bus boycott.
King was elected to lead the boycott because he was young, well-trained with
solid family connections and had professional standing. But he was also new to
the community and had few enemies, so it was felt he would have strong
credibility with the black community.
In his first speech as the group's president, King declared, "We have
no alternative but to protest. For many years we have shown an amazing
patience. We have sometimes given our white brothers the feeling that we liked
the way we were being treated. But we come here tonight to be saved from that
patience that makes us patient with anything less than freedom and
justice."
Martin Luther King Jr.'s fresh and skillful rhetoric put a new energy into
the civil rights struggle in Alabama. The bus boycott would be 382 days of
walking to work, harassment, violence and intimidation for the Montgomery's
African-American community. Both King's and E.D. Nixon's homes were attacked.
But the African-American community also took legal action against the city
ordinance arguing that it was unconstitutional based on the Supreme Court's
"separate is never equal" decision in Brown v. Board of Education.
After being defeated in several lower court rulings and suffering large
financial losses, the city of Montgomery lifted the law mandating segregated
public transportation. King met with religious and civil rights leaders and
lectured all over the country on race-related issues.
In 1959, with the help of the American Friends Service Committee, and
inspired by Gandhi's success with non-violent activism, Martin Luther King
visited Gandhi's birthplace in India. The trip affected him in a deeply
profound way, increasing his commitment to America's civil rights struggle.
African-American civil rights activist Bayard Rustin,
who had studied Gandhi's teachings, became one of King's associates and
counseled him to dedicate himself to the principles of non-violence. Rustin
served as King's mentor and advisor throughout his early activism and was the
main organizer of the 1963 March on Washington. But Rustin was also a controversial
figure at the time, being a homosexual with alleged ties to the Communist
Party, USA. Though his counsel was invaluable to King, many of his other
supporters urged him to distance himself from Rustin.
In February 1960, a group of African-American students began what became
known as the "sit-in" movement in Greensboro, North Carolina. The
students would sit at racially segregated lunch counters in the city's stores.
When asked to leave or sit in the colored section, they just remained seated,
subjecting themselves to verbal and sometimes physical abuse. The movement
quickly gained traction in several other cities. In April 1960, the SCLC held a
conference at Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina with local sit-in
leaders. Martin Luther King Jr. encouraged students to continue to use
nonviolent methods during their protests. Out of this meeting, the Student
Nonviolent Coordinating Committee formed and for a time, worked closely with
the SCLC. By August of 1960, the sit-ins had been successful in ending
segregation at lunch counters in 27 southern cities.
By 1960, Martin Luther King Jr. was gaining national notoriety. He returned
to Atlanta to become co-pastor with his father at Ebenezer Baptist Church, but
also continued his civil rights efforts. On October 19, 1960, King and 75
students entered a local department store and requested lunch-counter service
but were denied. When they refused to leave the counter area, King and 36
others were arrested. Realizing the incident would hurt the city's reputation,
Atlanta's mayor negotiated a truce and charges were eventually dropped. But
soon after, King was imprisoned for violating his probation on a traffic
conviction. The news of his imprisonment entered the 1960 presidential
campaign, when candidate John F. Kennedy
made a phone call to Coretta Scott
King. Kennedy expressed his concern for King's harsh treatment for the
traffic ticket and political pressure was quickly set in motion. King was soon
released.
In the spring of 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. organized a demonstration in
downtown Birmingham, Alabama. Entire families attended. City police turned dogs
and fire hoses on demonstrators. Martin Luther King was jailed along with large
numbers of his supporters, but the event drew nationwide attention.
Flush with victory, African-American civil rights leaders recognized the
need for a national organization to help coordinate their efforts. In January
1957, Martin Luther King Jr., Ralph Abernathy, and 60 ministers and civil
rights activists founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to
harness the moral authority and organizing power of black churches. They would
help conduct non-violent protests to promote civil rights reform. King's
participation in the organization gave him a base of operation throughout the
South, as well as a national platform. The organization felt the best place to
start to give African Americans a voice was to enfranchise them in the voting
process. In February 1958, the SCLC sponsored more than 20 mass meetings in key
southern cities to register black voters in the South. However, King was
personally criticized by black and white clergy alike for taking risks and endangering
the children who attended the demonstration. From the jail in Birmingham, King
eloquently spelled out his theory of non-violence: "Nonviolent direct
action seeks to create such a crisis and foster such a tension that a
community, which has constantly refused to negotiate, is forced to confront the
issue."
By the end of the Birmingham campaign, Martin Luther King Jr. and his
supporters were making plans for a massive demonstration on the nation's
capital composed of multiple organizations, all asking for peaceful change. On
August 28, 1963, the historic March on Washington drew more than 200,000 people
in the shadow of the Lincoln Memorial. It was here that King made his famous
"I Have a Dream" speech, emphasizing his belief that someday all men
could be brothers.
The rising tide of civil rights agitation produced a strong effect on public
opinion. Many people in cities not experiencing racial tension began to
question the nation's Jim Crow laws and the near century second class treatment
of African-American citizens. This resulted in the passage of the Civil Rights
Act of 1964 authorizing the federal government to enforce desegregation of
public accommodations and outlawing discrimination in publicly owned facilities.
This also led to Martin Luther King receiving the Nobel Peace Prize for 1964.
King's struggle continued throughout the 1960s. Often, it seemed as though
the pattern of progress was two steps forward and one step back. On March 7,
1965, a civil rights march, planned from Selma to Alabama's capital in
Montgomery, turned violent as police with nightsticks and tear gas met the
demonstrators as they tried to cross the Edmond Pettus Bridge. King was not in
the march, however the attack was televised showing horrifying images of
marchers being bloodied and severely injured. Seventeen demonstrators were
hospitalized leading to the naming the event "Bloody Sunday." A
second march was cancelled due to a restraining order to prevent the march from
taking place. A third march was planned and this time King made sure he was on
it. Not wanting to alienate southern judges by violating the restraining order,
a different tact was taken. On March 9, 1965, a procession of 2,500 marchers,
both black and white, set out once again to cross the Pettus Bridge and
confronted barricades and state troopers. Instead of forcing a confrontation,
King led his followers to kneel in prayer and they then turned back. The event
caused King the loss of support among some younger African-American leaders,
but it nonetheless aroused support for the passage of the Voting Rights Act of
1965.
From late 1965 through 1967, Martin Luther King Jr. expanded his Civil
Rights Movement into other larger American cities, including Chicago and Los
Angeles. But he met with increasing criticism and public challenges from young
black-power leaders. King's patient, non-violent approach and appeal to white
middle-class citizens alienated many black militants who considered his methods
too weak and too late.
In the eyes of the sharp-tongued, blue jean young urban black, King's manner
was irresponsibly passive and deemed non-effective. To address this criticism
King began making a link between discrimination and poverty. He expanded his
civil rights efforts to the Vietnam War. He felt that America's involvement in
Vietnam was politically untenable and the government's conduct of the war
discriminatory to the poor. He sought to broaden his base by forming a
multi-race coalition to address economic and unemployment problems of all
disadvantaged people.
By 1968, the years of demonstrations and confrontations were beginning to
wear on Martin Luther King Jr. He had grown tired of marches, going to jail,
and living under the constant threat of death. He was becoming discouraged at
the slow progress civil rights in America and the increasing criticism from
other African-American leaders. Plans were in the works for another march on
Washington to revive his movement and bring attention to a widening range of
issues. In the spring of 1968, a labor strike by Memphis sanitation workers
drew King to one last crusade. On April 3, in what proved to be an eerily
prophetic speech, he told supporters, "I've seen the promised land. I may not
get there with you. But I want you to know tonight that we, as a people, will
get to the promised land." The next day, while standing on a balcony
outside his room at the Lorraine Motel, Martin Luther King Jr. was struck by a
sniper's bullet. The shooter, a malcontent drifter and former convict named James Earl Ray,
was eventually apprehended after a two-month, international manhunt. The
killing sparked riots and demonstrations in more than 100 cities across the
country. In 1969, Ray pleaded guilty to assassinating King and was sentenced to
99 years in prison. He died in prison on April 23, 1998.
Martin Luther King Jr.'s life had a seismic impact on race relations in the
United States. Years after his death, he is the most widely known
African-American leader of his era. His life and work have been honored with a
national holiday, schools and public buildings named after him, and a memorial
on Independence Mall in Washington, D.C. But his life remains controversial as
well. In the 1970s, FBI files, released under the Freedom of Information Act,
revealed that he was under government surveillance, and suggested his
involvement in adulterous relationships and communist influences. Over the years,
extensive archival studies have led to a more balanced and comprehensive
assessment of his life, portraying him as a complex figure: flawed, fallible
and limited in his control over the mass movements with which he was
associated, yet a visionary leader who was deeply committed to achieving social
justice through nonviolent means.
ONAM FESTIVAL IN KERALA, INDIA
The festival commemorates the Vamana avatar of Vishnu and the subsequent homecoming of the legendary Emperor Mahabali. It is the state festival of Kerala and falls during the month of Chingam
(August–September) and lasts for ten days. The festival is marked by
various festivities, including intricate flower carpets, elaborate
banquet lunches, snake boat races, Onappottan,Athachamayam in Tripunithura, Kaazhchakkula in Guruvayoor, Puli Kali,
Kaikottikkali, Kummaattikkali, Onathaar, Onachamayam, Onathallu,
Thrikkaakarayappan, Thumbi thullal, Onavillu etc. This is one of the
very few festivals which is celebrated with most number of cultural
elements.
Significance
Onam is an ancient festival which still survives in modern times. Kerala's rice harvest festival
and the Festival of Rain Flowers, which fall on the Malayalam month of
Chingam, celebrates the Asura King Mahabali's annual visit from Patala (the underworld). Onam is unique since Mahabali has been revered by the people of Kerala since prehistory.
According to the legend, Kerala witnessed its golden era during the reign of King Mahabali. The Brahma-Vaivarta Puranam explains that Lord Vishnu wanted to curb the pride of Indra; and therefore positioned Mahabali in great power.
The Bhagavata Purana reads "He [Vishnu] will take the kingdom away from Purandara [Lord Indra] and give it to Bali Maharaja."
The subjects under Mahabali's reign were happy and prosperous and the
king was highly regarded, so much so that even the gods under Indra became jealous of Mahabali as was intened by Vishnu, and they approached Vishnu
claiming that Mahabali is now equivalent to an Indra. Once Vishnu was
assured that Indra's pride has been contained and that a world with two
Indras represents imbalance, Vishnu assumed the form of a dwarf: Vamana. Vamana requested three steps of land for him to live in. Given a promise of three steps of land by King Mahabali against the warning given by his Guru Sukracharya,
Vamana, enlarged himself to such dimensions as to stride over the three
worlds. He had grown so huge that he could step from heaven to earth,
and earth to the lower worlds in two simple steps. King Mahabali
unable to fulfill the promise of three paces of land to the Supreme
God, offers his head for the third step. Thus, Vamana places his foot on
King Mahabali's head and sends him down to the netherworld. Being
worshipped however, by Mahabali, and his ancestor Prahláda, he conceded
to them the sovereignty of Sutala (netherworld).
However, as Mahabali was equivalent to Indra, he had to wait until the next Yuga
where he would be the Indra. In the meantime, with the grace of Vishnu,
Mahabali visited his people on an annual basis. Vishnu served Mahabali
as a gatekeeper in Sutala as the Lord himself serves his greatest
devotees.
It is this visit of Mahabali that is celebrated as Onam every year.
People celebrate the festival in a grand way and impress upon their dear
King that they are happy and wish him well. The rich cultural heritage of Kerala comes out in its best form and
spirit during the ten-day festival. The central feature of Onam is the
grand feast called Onasadya, prepared on Thiruonam. It is a nine-course
meal consisting of 11 to 13 essential dishes. Onasadya is served on
banana leaves and people sit on a mat laid on the floor to have the
meal.
Another popular feature of Onam is Vallamkali, the Snake Boat Race, held on the Pamba River, in which decorative boats oared by hundreds of boatmen race amidst chanting of songs and cheering by spectators and viewers.
There is also a tradition to play games, collectively called
Onakalikal, on Onam. Men go in for rigorous sports like Talappanthukali
(played with a ball), Ambeyyal (Archery), Kutukutu and combats called
Kayyankali and Attakalam. Women indulge in cultural activities. They
make intricately designed flower mats called, Pookalam in the front
courtyard of the house to welcome King Mahabali. Kaikotti kali and
Thumbi Thullal are two dances performed by women on Onam. Folk
performances like Kummatti kali and Pulikali add to the zest of
celebrations.
Mahabali's rule is considered the golden era of Kerala. The following song is often sung over Onam:
The legend
Mahabali was the grandson of Prahlada (son of Hiranyakashyapa who was slain by Vishnu in his NarasimhaAvatara). Prahlad, despite being an Asura, had great faith in Vishnu. Mahabali learned the act of love and devotion to Lord Vishnu as a child, from Prahlada.
Mahabali conquers the three worlds
Kashyapa had two wives, Diti and Aditi, who were the parents of the demons and the gods (Asuras and Devas) respectively. Kashyapa, who had gone to the Himalayas
to do penance, on his return found Aditi weeping. By divine insight,
Kashyapa instantly recognised the cause of her grief. He tried to
console her saying that nothing happens in the world without divine will
and people should go on doing their duties. He asked her to pray to
Vishnu and taught her Payovrata, a ritual that has to be observed from the 12th day of the bright half of Karthika (Sukla-paksha Dvadasi). Since Aditi carried out the Vrata with a pious heart, Vishnu appeared before her and informed her that he would help Indra.
Alternatively, the Devas were very annoyed as Mahabali became the
ruler of all the three worlds having defeated the Devas. Devas, the
celestial beings, were annoyed and jealous.
The gods approached Vishnu and asked for his help. Vishnu said to the
Devas that Mahabali is doing good things to his subjects and is eligible
to become sura (devas). You devas should not be jealous about that.
Being jealous would make you asuras. Vishnu decided to test Mahabali. In the meantime, Mahabali was performing the sacrificial rite of the Viswajith Yagam or Aswamedha Yagam on the banks of the Narmada River
in Brugacham (which is in Bharuch, Gujarat). He also declared that he
would give anything that anyone sought from him during this Yagam.
Vamana visits Mahabali
Taking advantage of the Yagam and Mahabali's declaration, Vamana (Vishnu disguised as a Brahmin) came to the Yaga-shala.
As he approached them, the sages assembled there perceived the
extraordinary effulgence form of the young lad. Mahabali went forth to
receive the Brahmin
boy with all traditional honours and gave him an eminent seat befitting
the status of a holy person. With the usual courtesy given to the
people who come to ask for help, Mahabali told him that it was his good
fortune that Vamana had chosen to honour him with his presence. Whatever
Vamana desired, Mahabali was ready to fulfill. Vamana smiled and said:
"You need not give me anything great. It is enough if you give me that
extend of land covered by three footsteps of mine".
On hearing him, Mahabali's preceptor, Shukracharya
(a Daitya priest), who had visions of the future, told Mahabali that
the one who had come to take alms from him was not an ordinary Brahmin
but Lord Vishnu Himself having assumed this form. He advised Mahabali
not to promise the lad anything. But Mahabali was a king who would never
go back on his word, considering it sinful to do so. Shukracharya
insisted that he should not fulfill the demand of Vamana as he had come to deprive him of all his possessions.
Mahabali, determined to honour his promise, begged the pardon of his
Guru for disregarding his advice. Earlier, while Mahabali was embarking
on the war with Indra, he had prostrated at the feet of his preceptor,
Shukracharya, and on his advice had he started the Vishwajith Yagam from
which he secured some very powerful weapons. It was only because of
Shukracharya's help that he was able to conquer Indra. Mahabali's
refusal angered Shukracharya. He cursed Mahabali, saying: 'As you have
not heeded your Guru's words, you will be reduced to ashes'. Mahabali
was firm and replied: 'I am prepared to face any consequence but will
not go back on my word'.
Mahabali's reign ends
Saying so, he asked Vamana to measure the desired three feet of land.
All attempts of Shukracharya to dissuade Mahabali proved futile.
Mahabali considered everyone who came to him for help as god himself and
never refused them anything. Mahabali told his Guru: "Prana (life)
and Maana (honour) are like the two eyes of a person. Even if life goes,
honour should be protected. Knowing that the person that has come now
is the Lord Himself, I should be the most fortunate one as the Lord, who
gives everything to mankind, is seeking something from me." Mahabali gladly said that even if Vishnu himself were to come to his sacrifice and ask for anything, he would deliver it.
Vamana grew in size until he towered above the heavens. With one
footstep, he measured all of the earth. With the second, he claimed all
of heaven. There was still one foot of territory that Mahabali owed him.
Mahabali requested Vamana to place the final step on his head as the
third step of land, for he had no other left. Vamana did so and in doing
so, sent him down to Sutala, the heaven-like underworld. The site where
he placed his foot is said to be the village of Thrikkakara
(meaning place of the holy foot), and is the centre of the renowned
Onam festival celebrated in relation to the legend of King Mahabali.
Vishnu's blessings
For the devotion of this daitya,
Mahabali, Lord Vishnu (Vamana) granted him rule over the underworld. It
was also granted that he would hold the position of Indra for one Manvantara, thus fulfilling his devotee's desire (the office of Indra being a rotating position, changing every Manvantara).
As a last gift, Mahabali was granted permission to visit his subjects
once a year. Thus, Keralites celebrate the Onam festival to commemorate
the memory of the Great King Mahabali who would keep his promise to
visit. Mahabali fulfilled his name as the great martyr for the sake of
Truth ("Satya"). The name "Mahabali" itself means Great Sacrifice.
During Onam, the feast and festive mood of the people, dressed in
their best, is considered reminiscent of the prosperous and truthful
life of the subjects during Mahabali's flawless reign. People wear new
clothes (Vastra) during Onam. The 'Vastra' also stands for heart. Thus
the significance of wearing new clothes is about making the heart new by
removing all bad thoughts and feelings. People forgetting their
sectarian outlooks, join together to welcome the auspicious 'Thiruvonam'
day.
Alternate Legend
By traditional beliefs; Parasurama, an incarnation of Vishnu is credited to have founded Kerala. An alternate legend defines Onam as the day on which Parasurama recovered Kerala from the sea-bed by throwing his battle-axe. The axe traveled from Gokarnam in the North to Kanyakumari in the South. This legend is mentioned by Hermann Gundert in his Malayalam Dictionary.
Sri Padmanabha's birthday
The birthday of the Presiding Deity of Thiruvananthapuram is on the Thiruvonam day in the month of Chingam.
The Ten Days of Celebration
The celebrations of Onam start on Atham day, 10 days before
Thiruvonam. The 10 days are part of the traditional Onam celebrations
and each day has its own importance in various rituals and traditions.
Earthen mounds, which look somewhat like square pyramids, representing
Mahabali and Vamana are placed in the dung-plastered courtyards in front
of the house and beautifully decorated with flowers. Known as
‘Onapookkalam’, it is a carpet made out of the gathered blossoms with
one or two varieties of foliage of differing tints pinched up into
little pieces to serve the decorator's purpose. It is considered a work
of art accomplished with a delicate touch and a highly artistic sense of
tone and blending. (In a similar manner North Indians make Rangoli which is made of powders of various colors.) When completed, a miniature pandal, hung with little festoons is erected over it.
Atham- The first day of Onam Celebrations
Onam starts with Atham day in the Malayalam month of Chingam. It is
believed that King Mahabali starts his preparations to descend from hell
to Kerala on this day. The day also marks the start of festivities at Thrikkakara Temple (considered as the abode of Mahabali). The Onam celebrations across the state, starts off with a grand procession at Thrippunithura near Kochi called Athachamayam. In olden days, the Kochi Maharaja used to head a grand military procession in full ceremonial robes from his palace to the Thrikkakara Temple.
After independence, the public took over the function and celebrated as
a major cultural procession which kicks off the official celebrations
of Onam. Elephant processions, folk art presentations, music and dancing
make Athachamyam a spectacular event which is now aggressively promoted
as a tourist event.
The traditional ritual of laying Pookalam (floral carpet)
starts on Atham day. The size of pookalam on this day is called as
Athapoo and will small which eventually grew day after day. Only yellow
flowers will be used on this day and the design will be simple. Also the
statues of Mahabali and Vamanan will be installed on the entrance of
each house on this day.
Chithira- The second day of Onam Celebrations
The second day is marked off when a second layer is added to pookalam
design with 2 different colours apart from yellow (mostly orange and
creamy yellow). On this day, people starts cleaning the house-hold to
prepare for the Thiruvonam day.
Chodi- The third day of Onam Celebrations
The pookalam now will start growing in its size by adding new layers
or designs with at least 4 to 5 different flowers. The day also marks
the start of shopping activities. Onam is associated with gifting new
clothes, hence from this day onwards people start buy new clothes and
jewellery.
Vishakam- The fourth day of Onam Celebrations
Vishakam is considered to be one of the most auspicious days of Onam.
In olden days, the markets open this harvest sale on this day, making
one of the busiest days in the markets for public. Today Vishakam marks
the start of many Onam-related competitions like Pookalam competitions
etc.
Anizham- The fifth day of Onam Celebrations
Anizham is one of the most important day in the Onam days as it kicks off the great Vallam Kali
(Snake boat) at many parts of Kerala. A mock Vallam Kali is conducted
on this day at Aranmula as a dress-rehearsal for the famed Aranmula boat race which will be held after Onam.
Thriketa- The sixth day of Onam Celebrations
By the sixth day, the public frenzy starts going on higher side. Most
of the schools and public offices starts issuing holidays from this day
onwards and people starts packing their bags to their native homes to
celebrate the festival with their dear ones. The pookalam design will be
very large by this time, with at least 5 to 6 new flowers types added
to the original designs.
Moolam- The seventh day of Onam Celebrations
On the seventh day, the smaller versions of traditional Ona Sadya
(Onam special buffet lunch) starts in many places. Most of the temples
offers special sadhyas on from this day. Festivities include Puli Kali
(Masked leopard dance) and traditional dance forms like Kaikotti Kali
also performed in various functions. The official Government
celebrations starts on this day with heavy illuminations in Thiruvananthapuram City, Kochi city and Kozhikode along with fireworks.
Pooradam- The eight day of Onam Celebrations
The day marks off with a major traditional ritual where the small
statues of Mahabali and Vamana will be washed and cleaned and taken
around the house as a procession. It will be later installed in the
center of the pookalam smeared with rice-flour batter. The smearing is
done by small children who will be Pooradaunnikkal. From this day
onwards, the statue will be called Onathappan. The pookalam design from Pooradam day onwards get much bigger and
complex in design. Shopping will be one of the major activities as the
public will be making final purchases for the great Thiruvonam day.
Uthradom- The ninth day of Onam Celebrations
Uthradom is the ninth and the penultimate day of the festival
of Onam. It is considered as Onam eve and celebrated in a very big way.
The importance of this day is last minute extreme shopping frenzy called
as Uthradapachal and is considered the most auspicious day for purchase
of fresh vegetables and fruits along with other provisions from the
Thiruvonam day.
Uthradam is known as FIRST ONAM because it marks the day when
King Mahabali descends Kerala and the traditional myths says that the
king will spend the next four days touring his erstwhile kingdom and
blessing the subjects. Due to this Urthadom is celebrated in a very
pompous manner with larger pookalam and celebrations in household. The
Urthada lunch is very famous tradition. Women normally cuts the first
set of vegetables on this day that marks the celebrations of Thiruvonam
in each household and preparations for grand Onam buffet starts in
evening of Uthradom day.
Thiruvonam- The tenth day of Onam Celebrations
The final day of Onam that culminates the 10 days of Onam Carnival. The day is known as Thiru-Onam (Sacred Onam Day) also known as SECOND ONAM.
Myth says, it was the day Mahabali was suppressed to underworld by
Vamana. The day marks return of Mahabali to his fabled land (Kerala), as
per the boon he received from Vamana to meet his subjects and bless
them. Apart from this myth, this day is considered auspicious being
birthdays of several temple deities like Vamana of Thrikkara temple,
Sree Padmanabha Swamy of Thiruvananthapuram etc. Though a traditional
Hindu festival, Onam today has emerged as a secular festival associated
with harvest time of Kerala.
Activities begin early in the morning. People clean their house,
smear the main entrance with rice-flour batter (a traditional welcome
sign), take early bath, wear new clothes and distribute alms to needy.
The eldest female member of each family presents clothes to all the
members of the family. Special prayers and Masses are organized in
temples, churches and mosques that highlight the secular nature of
festival. Later a very special and the biggest of all days, Pookalam is
prepared to welcome Mahabali.
The most important activity of Thiruvonam is the grand Thiruona-Sadya,
well known for being one of the most sumptuous feasts ever prepared by
mankind. The level of sumptuous varies at each individual household,
however every household tries to make as grand as possible as they can.
The feast served on plantain leaves have more than 13 to 15 curries
apart from other regular items. In hotels and temples, number of curries
and dishes can go up to 30 for the feast. Whatever may happen no
malayalee will miss the Grand ona-sadya. There is a saying in Malayalam
that "Kanam Vittum Onam Unnanam" which means "We should have the
Thiruvonam lunch even if we have to sell all our properties" which shows
the importance of the grand lunch on the Thiruvonam day.
A fabulous display of fireworks turns the capital Thiruvananthapuram
and Kochi into a veritable fairyland. Sumptuous feasts are prepared in
every household. Even the poorest of the poor manage to find something
for himself to celebrate this festival in his own humble way. The afternoon is marked with various traditional Onam games normally
seen in rural areas and are organized by resident associations, clubs
etc. in large cities. In some parts of Kerala, people indulge in various
games and dances during and post thiruvonam. It is known as Onakkalikal
and includes Thiruvathirakali, Kummattikali , Pulikali etc. Kummattikali
or Kummatti Kali is the famous colorful-mask dance. People also take
part in many kinds of competitions like Ox Race (Maramadimatsaram),
Uriyady, food eating competitions, pookalaam creations etc.
Post Onam celebrations
Normally Onam celebrations end by Thiruvonam. However two following
days after Thiruvonam, are also celebrated as Third and Fourth Onam. The
third Onam, called Avvittom marks the preparations for King
Mahabali's ascension to heavens. The main ritual of the day is to take
the Onathappan statue which was placed in the middle of every Pookalam
during the past 10 days and immerse it in nearby rivers or sea. The
pookalam will be cleaned and removed after this. The day is also
important, as the famous Pulikali
is held in the city of Thrissur. In this, men dressed as lions and
tigers parade through the city in large numbers. The Puli-kali also
marks the end of traditional Onam celebrations.
Fourth Onam is called as Chatayam. The official government celebrations ends on this day with a mega dance festival in the capital city- Thiruvananthapuram.
Onam legacy
Onam comes in the month of "Chingam" which is the first month
according to the Malayalam Calendar. People put flower mats in front of
their houses, to welcome King Mahabali.
There will be competition for the laying of flower mats; Keralites all
over the world will be celebrating this ten days with pomp and gaiety.
They wear new dresses, visit as many temples as they can, perform dances
like Thiruvadhira kaliThumbi Tullal etc. to name a few.
Onam is celebrated with a focus on different cultural aspects at different places. Athachamayam- a cultural procession takes place in the royal town of Tripunithura near Ernakulam-Kochi, on the Atham day of Chingam, which also marks the beginning of Onam celebrations. At the Vamanamoorthy temple in Thrikkakara, the annual temple festival coincides with Onam. The temple is dedicated to Lord Vamana and is directly linked to the mythological background of Onam.
Onam Pookkalam is considered as a symbol for secularism. Various
kinds of flowers combine together to form a great-looking pookkalam. So,
it shall reflect those old good days during King Mahabali. It's a great pleasure for people in Kerala to make Pookkalam from Atham to Thiruvonam, especially for children.
The celebrations begin within a fortnight of the Malayalam New Year
and go on for ten days. The last day called the Thiruvonam is the most
important. All over the state, rituals along with new clothes,
traditional cuisine, dance, and music mark this harvest festival. At Valluvanad(mainly Ottapalam, Shornur regions), Kathakali dancers in gorgeous costumes enact the legends. A strikingly impressive procession of caparisoned elephants is taken out at Thrissur, where masked dancers also go from house to house performing the colorful Kummattikali dance. At Cheruthuruthy, people gather to watch Kathakali performers enact scenes from epics and folk tales. Pulikali, also known as Kaduvakali
is a common sight during Onam season. Performers painted like tigers in
bright yellow, red and black, dance to the beats of instruments like Udukku and thakil.
At Aranmula, during Onam days the famous Aranmula Vallam Kali is conducted. The swing is another integral part of Onam, especially in the rural
areas. Young men and women, decked in their best, sing Onappaatt, or
Onam songs, and rock one another on swings slung from high branches.
Onam activities
The most important things about Onam are the onakkodi, the new clothes worn on this day and onam sadya,
a feast which is quite elaborate. This is usually a feast served on
banana leaves and serves rice along with at least an array of 4 dishes.
Traditional pickles and papadam are also served. Dessert is usually
'payasam', a sweet dish made of milk, sugar and other traditional Indian
savories.
During Onam, people create a multi-coloured floral decoration on the ground in the front of their home called pookkalam.
Young children especially girls are often entrusted with the task of
gathering and laying out the flowers in elaborate patterns. Competitions
are held on onam day to create this floral design. It is usually 1.5 m
in Diameter usually in circular shape. A lamp is usually placed as part
of the design. In the recent years, the floral designs have evolved from
the traditional circular shape to unique designs depicting different
cultural and social aspects of Kerala life.
The Vallamkali (the snake boat race) is another event that is synonymous with Onam. Well-known races include the Aranmula Boat Race and the Nehru Trophy Boat Race.
About 100 oarsmen row huge and graceful snake boats and men and women
come from far and near to watch the snake boats skim through the water.
During the Onam, Keralite Hindus install an image of Thrikkakara
Appan (Vishnu in the form of Vamana) in their home just as Hindus
install images or murtis of Lord Ganesh on the Ganesh Chaturthi festival.
Many lamps are lit in Hindu temples of Kerala during this celebration. A palmyra tree is erected in front of temples and surrounded with a wooden balustrade and covered with dry palmyra leaves. It is lit with a torch and burned to ashes to signify that Mahabali went to hell as a sacrifice.
Mahatma Phule's interpretation
Mahatma Phule, the leader of non-Brahmin movement, interpreted the
myth of Bali in the revolutionary manner. The story prevalent in the
Brahminical tradition revers Vamana as incarnation of Vishnu, who pushed
Bali to the nether-world. Phule, on the other hand, celebrated Bali as
the king of the people, peasants or original inhabitants of India (as
opposed to Aryan Brahmins, who came to India from Iran, in accordance
with the Orientalist theories prevalent in that period). Thus, in
Phule's interpretation, Vamana became the symbol of Aryans/ Brahmins,
who enslaved and exploited indigenous people, symbolized by Bali. He
based his argument on the fact that on the day of Diwali and Dasara,
women in Maharashtra say, "may the misery and agony go away, may the
kingdom of Bali be established". Phule also calls India as Balisthan,
naming it after Bali.
